What is China’s Ice Silk Road?

China’s “Ice Silk Road”—also known as the Polar Silk Road—is an ambitious extension of its Belt and Road Initiative into the Arctic, formally unveiled in Beijing’s 2018 Arctic Policy White Paper. It envisions a new maritime corridor linking China to Europe via the Northern Sea Route (NSR), capitalizing on melting ice to shorten shipping times and secure energy resources. Far from mere rhetoric, it reflects China’s self-proclaimed status as a “Near-Arctic State” and its drive to become a “Polar Great Power.”

Here are the key geopolitical implications emerging in 2026:

• Strategic bypass: The NSR offers an alternative to the vulnerable Malacca Strait, through which 80% of China’s energy imports flow.
• Deepening Russia ties: Over 90% of China’s Arctic investments target Russian projects, but this partnership strengthens Moscow’s leverage.
• Emerging tensions: Accelerated ice melt raises prospects for resource disputes and militarization, transforming the Arctic from a frozen barrier into a potential frontline.
• Western pushback: Setbacks in Greenland and elsewhere highlight security concerns from the U.S. and allies.
• Opportunities for balancers: Nations like South Korea could exploit subtle divergences between China, Russia, and North Korea to enhance regional stability.

Yet beneath the economic rhetoric lies a more profound shift. China’s Arctic push exploits climate change and opportunistic alliances to challenge Western maritime dominance, creating ripple effects for global security—from U.S. homeland defense to alliances in Asia.

Roots of Ambition: From Xi’s Vision to National Security Doctrine

The Ice Silk Road traces back to 2014, when President Xi Jinping, aboard the icebreaker Xuelong in Tasmania, declared China’s intent to evolve from a “Polar Big Power”—focused on quantitative expansion—to a qualitative “Polar Great Power.” This marked a pivot toward technological independence, governance influence, and maximized benefits.

By 2018, China’s first Arctic White Paper formalized the strategy, asserting rights under UNCLOS for navigation, research, and resource development while proposing to “jointly build” the Ice Silk Road with partners, primarily Russia. The 2021-2025 Five-Year Plan elevated polar regions as “strategic new frontiers,” tying them to maritime power goals.

Recent doctrine escalates this further. A 2025 national security white paper equates maritime interests with territorial sovereignty, implying potential justification for power projection in distant seas—including the Arctic. This evolution signals that Beijing views the far north not just as an economic opportunity, but as integral to core security.

Tangible Progress: Shipping Boom and Energy Stakes

China’s advances are most visible in the NSR’s rapid commercialization. Despite challenges, traffic has surged: in 2025, Chinese operators completed a record 14 container voyages, pushing transit cargo to new highs around 3.2 million tons across roughly 103 voyages.Reuters report on Chinese Arctic freight

Overall NSR activity reflects steep growth, with container volumes rising noticeably as Beijing accumulates expertise through state-owned COSCO and domestic shipbuilding.

Energy dominates investments. China has poured capital into Russian LNG projects like Yamal and Arctic LNG 2, undeterred by sanctions—receiving 22 shipments from sanctioned facilities in 2025 alone.Reuters on sanctioned Russian LNG to China Stakes in Gydan Peninsula developments and progress on onshore pipelines underscore this focus.

Scientific footholds, such as the China-Iceland Arctic Science Observatory, bolster presence, though Western analysts flag dual-use potential for surveillance.

Setbacks Amid Pushback: The Limits of Influence

Success has been uneven. Attempts to develop rare earths in Greenland faltered due to local elections and U.S.-Danish interventions, while airport bids and a proposed Finland-Norway railway collapsed amid security fears. These episodes reveal a geopolitical environment where economic overtures collide with alliance checks.CSIS analysis on Greenland and Arctic security

As ice recedes, non-Arctic actors like China face scrutiny, with coastal states prioritizing sovereign control.

Core Implications: Bypassing Chokepoints and Shifting Balances

The NSR’s strategic value shines in its potential to circumvent the Malacca dilemma—a “single point of failure” for China’s imports. Largely within Russia’s EEZ, it shields traffic from U.S. naval reach, provided Sino-Russian ties hold.Economist on Russia-China Arctic plans

This dependency cuts both ways: Russia gains leverage over route access. Emerging continental shelf claims, like those over the Lomonosov Ridge, foreshadow disputes, while melting enables permanent basing and submarine operations—altering force projection dynamics.Economist interactive on Arctic military threats

For the U.S., the Arctic shifts from natural barrier to vulnerable flank, demanding costly investments in icebreakers and defenses.Economist on U.S. icebreaker gap

Exploratory Risks: New Frontlines and Regional Dynamics

Three hypotheses illuminate 2026 risks.

First, climate change erodes U.S. strategic depth, elevating the Arctic to homeland priority as Russia and China probe nearer Alaska.NYT on Arctic threats NATO’s Arctic majority (excluding Russia) risks fault lines, yet Moscow’s wariness of Chinese encroachment—evident in restricted data sharing—limits full alignment.Carnegie on Sino-Russian Arctic limits

Second, China’s desired Tumen River outlet to the East Sea remains blocked by Russia and North Korea, preserving their ports and leverage. Joint infrastructure reinforces this check.

Third, U.S. “bifurcated” positioning—treating North Korea as a bolt against Chinese expansion—requires peninsular stability, pushing allies toward greater burden-sharing.

2026 Outlook: Stalled Pipelines and Heightened Vigilance

Early 2026 brings mixed signals. Power of Siberia 2 talks persist, with China holding pricing leverage amid alternatives; completion could take years.Carnegie on Russia-China gas deals NSR container traffic booms, but sanctions and ice variability temper euphoria.

Tensions simmer: Norway tightens Svalbard controls against Russian (and Chinese) influence, while Greenland’s resources draw renewed scrutiny.NYT on Svalbard Arctic control

For the West, urgency lies in coordinated deterrence—bolstering icebreaking, alliances, and governance—without provoking escalation. Allies like South Korea could preemptively stabilize by restoring ties with Russia and engaging North Korea, alleviating asymmetries that fuel bloc formation.Brookings on China Arctic ambitions

A Calculated Gambit in a Warming World

China’s Ice Silk Road is no fleeting venture; it’s a sophisticated play harnessing environmental upheaval and pragmatic partnerships to redraw global contours. In 2026, as routes open and stakes rise, the Arctic tests whether cooperation or competition prevails. The West cannot afford complacency—strategic adaptation, not isolation, offers the best counter. This melting frontier demands attention, lest it freeze old alliances into irrelevance.

References

Brookings Institution. (n.d.). China’s Arctic activities and ambitions. https://www.brookings.edu/events/chinas-arctic-activities-and-ambitions/

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. (2025, February 18). The Arctic is testing the limits of the Sino-Russian partnership. https://carnegieendowment.org/russia-eurasia/politika/2025/02/russia-china-arctic-views?lang=en

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. (2025, September 22). Why can’t Russia and China agree on the Power of Siberia 2 gas pipeline? https://carnegieendowment.org/russia-eurasia/politika/2025/09/russia-china-gas-deals?lang=en

Center for Strategic and International Studies. (2025). Greenland, rare earths, and Arctic security. https://www.csis.org/analysis/greenland-rare-earths-and-arctic-security

Jun, J. (2025, December 31). China’s ‘Ice Silk Road’ strategy and geopolitical implications. The East Asia Institute.

Reuters. (2025, October 14). Chinese freighter halves EU delivery time on maiden Arctic voyage to UK. https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/climate-energy/chinese-freighter-halves-eu-delivery-time-maiden-arctic-voyage-uk-2025-10-14/

Reuters. (2026, January 2). China receives 22 shipments of LNG from sanctioned Russian projects in 2025. https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/china-receives-22-shipments-lng-sanctioned-russian-projects-2025-2026-01-02/

The Economist. (2025, January 23). The Arctic: Climate change’s great economic opportunity. https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2025/01/23/the-arctic-climate-changes-great-economic-opportunity

The Economist. (2025, October 2). How bad is America’s icebreaker gap with Russia? https://www.economist.com/europe/2025/10/02/how-bad-is-americas-icebreaker-gap-with-russia

The Economist. (2025, November 12). The Arctic will become more connected to the global economy. https://www.economist.com/the-world-ahead/2025/11/12/the-arctic-will-become-more-connected-to-the-global-economy

How GDP Expansion and Export Dynamics Reshaped Global Economic Power

The dawn of the 21st century marked a watershed moment in economic history. In 2000, the global economy stood at approximately $33 trillion in nominal GDP. Today, that figure exceeds $105 trillion. But beneath these aggregate numbers lies a far more compelling story: a dramatic reshuffling of economic power that would have seemed fantastical to observers at the turn of the millennium.

China’s economy has expanded fourteenfold. India’s has grown nearly eightfold. Meanwhile, traditional economic powers have seen their relative positions shift in ways that challenge decades of assumptions about development, growth, and global economic hierarchy. This analysis examines all 50 of the world’s largest economies, tracking their GDP trajectories and export performance across 25 years of globalization, crisis, and transformation.

For investors allocating capital across borders, policymakers navigating geopolitical competition, and citizens seeking to understand their place in the global economy, these patterns reveal which strategies succeeded, which models faltered, and what the next quarter-century might hold.

Methodology and Data Framework

This analysis draws primarily on datasets from the International Monetary Fund’s World Economic Outlook Database, supplemented by World Bank national accounts data and OECD statistics for member countries. Export data comes from the World Trade Organization’s statistical database and national statistical agencies.

GDP Measurement Approach

Two methodologies dominate international comparisons. Nominal GDP measures economic output in current U.S. dollars using market exchange rates. This approach captures the actual dollar value of economies in international transactions but can be distorted by currency fluctuations. Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) adjusts for price level differences between countries, providing a better measure of domestic living standards and real output.

This analysis primarily uses nominal GDP for rankings and international comparisons, as it reflects actual economic power in global markets, trade negotiations, and geopolitical influence. PPP figures are referenced where relevant for understanding domestic economic conditions and real growth rates.

Time Period and Baseline

The year 2000 serves as an ideal baseline for several reasons. It represents the post-Cold War economic order before China’s 2001 WTO accession, captures the dot-com bubble peak, and provides a pre-9/11, pre-financial crisis reference point. The 25-year span encompasses multiple economic cycles, technological revolutions, and structural transformations.

Data Limitations

All international economic comparisons face inherent challenges. GDP calculations vary by national statistical methodology. Currency fluctuations can dramatically shift nominal rankings. Some economies (particularly China) face ongoing debates about data accuracy. Export statistics may not fully capture services trade or digital transactions. These limitations warrant acknowledgment without undermining the broader patterns revealed.

The Top 10 Economic Titans: Dominance and Disruption

United States: Sustained Primacy ($28.8 Trillion)

The United States began the millennium with a GDP of approximately $10.3 trillion and has grown to roughly $28.8 trillion in 2025, according to Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates. This represents 180% growth over 25 years, or a compound annual growth rate of about 4.2% in nominal terms.

What’s remarkable isn’t just absolute growth but sustained leadership through multiple crises. The U.S. economy absorbed the dot-com crash, the 2008 financial crisis, and the COVID-19 pandemic while maintaining its position as the world’s largest economy and primary reserve currency issuer. The dollar’s role in global trade and finance, combined with technological leadership in software, biotechnology, and artificial intelligence, has preserved American economic dominance even as relative share declined.

U.S. exports expanded from $1.1 trillion in 2000 to approximately $3.0 trillion in 2024, driven by services (particularly digital and financial), agricultural products, and advanced manufacturing. The trade deficit widened substantially, reflecting consumption patterns and the dollar’s reserve status enabling persistent current account imbalances.

China: The Most Dramatic Rise in Economic History ($18.5 Trillion)

No economic transformation in human history compares to China’s 25-year ascent. From a GDP of approximately $1.2 trillion in 2000, China’s economy expanded to roughly $18.5 trillion by 2025—a staggering 1,440% increase. The compound annual growth rate exceeded 11% for much of this period, moderating to 5-6% in recent years as the economy matured.

China’s 2001 accession to the World Trade Organization catalyzed this transformation. The country became the “world’s factory,” with exports surging from $249 billion in 2000 to over $3.5 trillion by 2024. China now exports more than any other nation, with manufactured goods comprising the bulk of shipments.

This growth trajectory lifted 800 million people out of poverty, created the world’s largest middle class, and shifted global supply chains. China surpassed Japan as the world’s second-largest economy in 2010, a symbolic moment marking Asia’s return to historical prominence. The economy’s sheer scale now influences commodity prices, manufacturing trends, and technological development globally.

The Chinese model combined state-directed capitalism, export-led growth, massive infrastructure investment, and financial repression to channel savings into productive capacity. Whether this model remains sustainable as demographics worsen and debt accumulates represents one of the key questions for global economics through 2050.

Japan: Stagnation, Resilience, and Recent Revival ($4.1 Trillion)

Japan’s economic story offers a counterpoint to China’s rise. The world’s second-largest economy in 2000 with GDP of $4.9 trillion, Japan grew to only $4.1 trillion by 2025 in nominal terms—a decline of 16%. However, this masks a more complex reality.

In PPP terms, Japan’s economy expanded modestly. Deflation, an aging population, and yen depreciation compressed nominal figures. Yet Japanese corporations remained technological leaders, the country maintained high living standards, and exports of automobiles, electronics, and machinery remained substantial at approximately $900 billion annually.

The “lost decades” narrative oversimplifies. Japan’s unemployment remained remarkably low, social cohesion high, and per capita income among the world’s highest. Recent economic reforms under various administrations have targeted corporate governance, labor market flexibility, and monetary stimulus with mixed results.

Germany: Europe’s Export Champion ($4.7 Trillion)

Germany’s economy expanded from $1.9 trillion in 2000 to approximately $4.7 trillion in 2025, representing 145% growth. This performance stands out in a European context marked by crisis and stagnation.

The German model centered on export-oriented manufacturing excellence, particularly automobiles, machinery, and chemicals. Exports reached $1.9 trillion in 2024, making Germany one of the world’s leading exporters relative to economic size. The trade surplus consistently exceeded 5% of GDP, reflecting competitiveness but also structural imbalances within the eurozone.

Eurozone membership provided Germany with an undervalued currency relative to its productivity, advantaging exporters. However, this came at the cost of regional imbalances, as southern European economies struggled with the same currency that propelled German growth.

India: The Emerging Giant ($4.0 Trillion)

India’s trajectory represents the other great Asian success story. GDP expanded from approximately $470 billion in 2000 to $4.0 trillion in 2025—growth of 750%. While less dramatic than China’s rise in percentage terms, India’s expansion occurred in a democracy with different structural constraints.

Services-led growth distinguished India’s model. Information technology, business process outsourcing, and financial services drove development rather than manufacturing. Exports grew from $43 billion in 2000 to approximately $775 billion in 2024, with services comprising a larger share than typical for developing economies.

India’s 1.4 billion people and favorable demographics position the country as potentially the world’s third-largest economy by 2030. However, challenges around infrastructure, education quality, and institutional capacity temper projections.

United Kingdom: Brexit and Beyond ($3.5 Trillion)

The UK economy grew from $1.6 trillion in 2000 to approximately $3.5 trillion in 2025, representing 120% expansion. Financial services dominance in the City of London, combined with pharmaceuticals, aerospace, and creative industries, sustained growth despite manufacturing decline.

The 2016 Brexit referendum and subsequent departure from the European Union introduced new uncertainties. Trade patterns shifted, with services exports facing new friction and goods trade requiring customs procedures. The long-term impact remains contested, with research from institutions like the Centre for Economic Performance suggesting modest negative effects on trade and investment.

France: Social Model Under Pressure ($3.1 Trillion)

France expanded from $1.4 trillion in 2000 to roughly $3.1 trillion in 2025, growth of 125%. The French model balanced strong social protections, significant state involvement in strategic sectors, and export competitiveness in aerospace, luxury goods, and agriculture.

High taxation, rigid labor markets, and pension obligations created fiscal pressures throughout the period. Yet French multinationals competed globally, productivity remained high, and quality of life indicators consistently ranked among the world’s best.

Italy: Sclerotic Growth and Structural Challenges ($2.3 Trillion)

Italy represents the developed world’s most disappointing performer. GDP grew from $1.1 trillion in 2000 to only $2.3 trillion in 2025, barely doubling over 25 years. Structural problems including low productivity growth, political instability, banking sector weakness, and demographic decline constrained expansion.

Northern Italy’s industrial districts maintained export competitiveness in machinery and luxury goods, but southern underdevelopment, rigid labor markets, and high public debt limited potential. Italy’s experience illustrates how institutional quality and structural reforms matter as much as initial conditions.

Canada: Resource-Rich Stability ($2.2 Trillion)

Canada’s economy expanded from $740 billion in 2000 to approximately $2.2 trillion in 2025, representing nearly 200% growth. Natural resources (oil, natural gas, minerals, timber) provided substantial export revenues, while proximity to the United States ensured market access.

The Canadian model balanced resource extraction with services growth, immigration-driven population expansion, and prudent financial regulation. Canadian banks survived the 2008 crisis largely unscathed, reflecting stronger regulatory oversight than American counterparts.

South Korea: From Developing to Developed ($1.9 Trillion)

South Korea’s rise from $562 billion in 2000 to $1.9 trillion in 2025 represents successful development strategy execution. The country transitioned from middle-income to advanced economy status, with globally competitive firms like Samsung, Hyundai, and LG driving export growth.

Electronics, automobiles, and shipbuilding propelled exports from $172 billion in 2000 to over $750 billion in 2024. Heavy investment in education, R&D spending exceeding 4% of GDP, and strategic industrial policy yielded technological leadership in semiconductors and displays.

Positions 11-30: The Global Middle Class

This tier encompasses economies ranging from $700 billion to $1.8 trillion, representing diverse development models and regional dynamics.

Russia ($1.8 Trillion): Expanded from $260 billion in 2000 to peak at $2.3 trillion before sanctions and oil price volatility reduced GDP to approximately $1.8 trillion. Commodity dependence, particularly energy exports, has driven boom-bust cycles. Geopolitical tensions following the 2014 Ukraine annexation and 2022 invasion drastically reshaped economic relationships.

Brazil ($2.3 Trillion): Grew from $655 billion to roughly $2.3 trillion, with commodity cycles dominating. Agricultural exports (soybeans, beef, sugar) and mineral resources drove growth, but political instability, infrastructure deficits, and education gaps constrained potential. Brazil illustrates the “middle-income trap” where initial development success stalls before reaching advanced status.

Australia ($1.7 Trillion): Expanded from $415 billion to $1.7 trillion, benefiting enormously from Chinese demand for iron ore, coal, and natural gas. The commodity boom of 2003-2011 drove exceptional growth, with Australia avoiding recession for nearly three decades—a remarkable run enabled by flexible monetary policy, immigration, and resource wealth.

Spain ($1.6 Trillion): Grew from $580 billion to $1.6 trillion despite a devastating 2008-2013 crisis. Construction and real estate collapse, banking sector distress, and unemployment exceeding 25% created severe pain. Recovery came through labor market reforms, tourism growth, and European Central Bank support, demonstrating eurozone integration benefits and constraints.

Mexico ($1.8 Trillion): Expanded from $680 billion to $1.8 trillion, benefiting from NAFTA/USMCA market access and manufacturing nearshoring. Automobile production, electronics assembly, and agriculture linked Mexican growth tightly to U.S. economic cycles. Violence, corruption, and institutional weakness limited potential despite favorable geography.

Indonesia ($1.4 Trillion): Grew from $165 billion to $1.4 trillion, Southeast Asia’s largest economy demonstrating commodity wealth and demographic dividend. Palm oil, coal, and mineral exports drove growth, while domestic consumption from 275 million people provided resilience. Infrastructure development remains critical for sustaining momentum.

Netherlands ($1.1 Trillion): Expanded from $415 billion to $1.1 trillion, maintaining status as a trading hub and logistics gateway. Rotterdam’s port, favorable tax treatment for multinationals, and export-oriented agriculture (flowers, vegetables) sustained prosperity despite small geographic size.

Saudi Arabia ($1.1 Trillion): Oil wealth drove expansion from $190 billion to $1.1 trillion, with volatility reflecting crude prices. Vision 2030 diversification efforts aim to reduce petroleum dependence, but progress remains limited. The kingdom’s position as swing producer in OPEC gives it outsized influence over global energy markets.

Turkey ($1.1 Trillion): Grew from $270 billion to $1.1 trillion, bridging Europe and Asia geographically and economically. Manufacturing exports, tourism, and construction drove growth, but political uncertainty, inflation, and unconventional monetary policy created volatility. Currency crises in 2018 and 2021 highlighted vulnerabilities.

Switzerland ($940 Billion): Expanded from $265 billion to $940 billion, maintaining its status as a financial center and precision manufacturing hub. Pharmaceuticals, watches, machinery, and banking services generated trade surpluses despite high costs. Political neutrality, institutional quality, and innovation sustained exceptional per capita prosperity.

Poland ($845 Billion): Perhaps Europe’s greatest success story, expanding from $171 billion to $845 billion. EU accession in 2004 catalyzed transformation, with structural funds, market access, and institutional reforms driving convergence. Manufacturing exports, particularly automobiles and electronics, integrated Poland into German supply chains.

Argentina ($640 Billion): Illustrates development disappointment, growing from $284 billion to only $640 billion. Chronic inflation, debt defaults (2001, 2020), currency crises, and policy instability prevented potential realization. Agricultural wealth (beef, soybeans, wheat) couldn’t overcome institutional dysfunction.

Belgium ($630 Billion): Grew from $230 billion to $630 billion, benefiting from EU headquarters location, port of Antwerp, and chemicals/pharmaceuticals exports. Political fragmentation between Flemish and Francophone regions created governance challenges without preventing prosperity.

Ireland ($630 Billion): Extraordinary expansion from $100 billion to $630 billion, though figures are distorted by multinational tax strategies. Genuine growth in pharmaceuticals, technology services, and financial operations was amplified by corporate profit shifting. The “leprechaun economics” phenomenon saw GDP surge 26% in 2015 largely from accounting changes.

Thailand ($540 Billion): Expanded from $126 billion to $540 billion, maintaining position as Southeast Asian manufacturing hub. Automobile production, electronics assembly, and tourism sustained growth despite political instability. Integration into regional supply chains, particularly for Japanese manufacturers, proved durable.

Austria ($530 Billion): Grew from $195 billion to $530 billion, leveraging location between Western and Eastern Europe. Manufacturing excellence, tourism, and banking services for Central Europe maintained high living standards.

United Arab Emirates ($510 Billion): Oil wealth and diversification drove expansion from $104 billion to $510 billion. Dubai’s transformation into a trading, tourism, and financial hub demonstrated how resource wealth can fund structural transformation. Aviation, real estate, and logistics complemented hydrocarbon revenues.

Nigeria ($500 Billion): Africa’s largest economy expanded from $67 billion to $500 billion, driven by oil exports and population growth. However, per capita income gains remained modest as 220 million people diluted aggregate growth. Infrastructure gaps, corruption, and security challenges constrained development despite resource wealth.

Israel ($530 Billion): Grew from $130 billion to $530 billion, earning its “startup nation” moniker. High-tech exports (software, cybersecurity, semiconductors) and defense industries drove development. R&D intensity exceeding 5% of GDP and mandatory military service creating technical skills sustained innovation.

Singapore ($525 Billion): Expanded from $96 billion to $525 billion, maintaining status as Southeast Asian financial center and trading hub. Despite tiny geography, strategic location, rule of law, and openness to global commerce created exceptional prosperity. Per capita income ranks among the world’s highest.

Positions 31-50: Rising Stars and Resilient Performers

The lower half of the top 50 reveals diverse economies at various development stages, from African emerging markets to smaller European nations.

Malaysia ($445 Billion): Electronics manufacturing, palm oil, and petroleum drove growth from $90 billion to $445 billion. Integration into East Asian supply chains sustained development, though middle-income challenges emerged as low-cost advantages eroded.

Philippines ($470 Billion): Grew from $81 billion to $470 billion, with remittances from overseas workers, business process outsourcing, and domestic consumption driving expansion. The country’s 115 million people and English proficiency created services export opportunities.

Bangladesh ($460 Billion): Remarkable transformation from $53 billion to $460 billion, propelled by ready-made garment exports. The country became the world’s second-largest clothing exporter after China, demonstrating how labor-intensive manufacturing can drive initial development.

Vietnam ($430 Billion): Stunning growth from $31 billion to $430 billion represented successful transition from command to market economy. Manufacturing exports, particularly electronics and textiles, attracted investment fleeing Chinese costs. Vietnam increasingly serves as “China plus one” diversification destination.

Egypt ($400 Billion): Expanded from $100 billion to $400 billion, though population growth to 110 million meant modest per capita gains. Suez Canal revenues, tourism, natural gas, and agriculture sustained the economy, but political instability and food security concerns created challenges.

Denmark ($410 Billion): Grew from $165 billion to $410 billion, maintaining Nordic social model with high taxation, strong welfare state, and export competitiveness in pharmaceuticals, renewable energy, and maritime services. Consistently ranks among world’s happiest and most prosperous nations.

Colombia ($390 Billion): Expanded from $100 billion to $390 billion, with oil, coal, coffee, and flowers driving exports. Security improvements after decades of conflict attracted investment, though inequality and political polarization persisted.

Pakistan ($380 Billion): Grew from $74 billion to $380 billion, but population expansion to 240 million meant per capita income remained low. Textiles exports, agriculture, and remittances sustained the economy, though political instability, debt burdens, and energy shortages constrained growth.

Chile ($360 Billion): Expanded from $78 billion to $360 billion, with copper mining dominating exports. Market-oriented policies since the 1980s created Latin America’s highest per capita income, though inequality sparked social unrest in 2019.

Finland ($305 Billion): Grew from $125 billion to $305 billion despite Nokia’s mobile phone business collapse. Adaptation to technology sector changes, forestry exports, and strong education system maintained prosperity.

Romania ($330 Billion): EU membership catalyzed growth from $37 billion to $330 billion. Manufacturing exports, particularly automobiles, and IT services drove convergence with Western European living standards, though institutional challenges remained.

Czech Republic ($330 Billion): Expanded from $61 billion to $330 billion, becoming a manufacturing hub for German automotive industry. Škoda Auto’s integration into Volkswagen Group symbolized broader economic integration.

Portugal ($285 Billion): Grew from $120 billion to $285 billion despite 2010-2014 eurozone crisis requiring bailout. Tourism, exports to Spain and France, and reforms restored growth.

Iraq ($270 Billion): Oil wealth rebuilt economy from wartime devastation, expanding from $32 billion to $270 billion. However, political instability, sectarian violence, and petroleum dependence left development fragile.

Peru ($270 Billion): Grew from $53 billion to $270 billion, with copper, gold, and fishmeal exports driving expansion. Market reforms in 1990s created Latin America’s fastest-growing major economy for two decades.

New Zealand ($270 Billion): Expanded from $54 billion to $270 billion, leveraging agricultural exports (dairy, meat, wine) and tourism. Small population and geographic isolation didn’t prevent high living standards.

Greece ($240 Billion): Cautionary tale of boom and bust, growing from $130 billion to peak at $355 billion before eurozone crisis collapsed GDP to $240 billion. Debt crisis, austerity, and depression demonstrated risks of unsustainable fiscal policy within monetary union.

Qatar ($235 Billion): Natural gas wealth drove expansion from $30 billion to $235 billion. World’s highest per capita income reflects tiny population and massive hydrocarbon reserves. 2022 World Cup hosting demonstrated global ambitions.

Hungary ($215 Billion): Grew from $47 billion to $215 billion after EU accession. Automotive manufacturing for German brands and electronics assembly attracted investment, though democratic backsliding created tensions with Brussels.

Kazakhstan ($220 Billion): Oil wealth expanded economy from $18 billion to $220 billion. Resource dependence and authoritarian governance characterized development model, with diversification efforts showing limited progress.

Growth Champions: Who Grew Fastest?

While absolute size matters, growth velocity reveals which economies executed successful development strategies.

Highest Absolute GDP Growth (2000-2025):

1. China: +$17.3 trillion
2. United States: +$18.5 trillion
3. India: +$3.5 trillion
4. Germany: +$2.8 trillion
5. Indonesia: +$1.2 trillion

Highest Percentage Growth (2000-2025):

1. China: +1,440%
2. Vietnam: +1,290%
3. Bangladesh: +770%
4. India: +750%
5. Ethiopia: +680%
6. Indonesia: +745%
7. Poland: +395%
8. Ireland: +530%
9. Philippines: +480%
10. Turkey: +307%

These rankings reveal that developing economies with large populations, favorable demographics, and successful integration into global trade achieved the fastest expansion. Manufacturing-oriented models (China, Vietnam, Bangladesh) outperformed commodity exporters, though natural resources provided growth where institutional quality allowed investment in productive capacity.

Export Growth Leaders:

Countries that dramatically expanded export volumes demonstrated competitiveness gains:

• China: $249 billion (2000) → $3,500 billion (2024) = +1,305%
• Vietnam: $14 billion → $385 billion = +2,650%
• India: $43 billion → $775 billion = +1,700%
• Poland: $32 billion → $395 billion = +1,134%
• Mexico: $166 billion → $620 billion = +273%

GDP Per Capita Improvements:

Several economies achieved dramatic per capita income gains, reflecting successful development:

• China: $960 → $13,100 (+1,265%)
• Poland: $4,450 → $22,000 (+395%)
• South Korea: $11,900 → $38,000 (+220%)
• Ireland: $25,600 → $98,000 (+283%, distorted by corporate accounting)
• Singapore: $23,800 → $88,000 (+270%)

Disappointments and Stagnation:

Some economies failed to realize potential or regressed:

• Japan: Nominal GDP declined despite stable living standards
• Italy: Barely doubled in 25 years, chronic stagnation
• Argentina: Chronic instability prevented resource wealth translation to broad prosperity
• Greece: Boom-bust cycle erased years of gains
• Venezuela: Collapsed from $117 billion to $70 billion, representing catastrophic policy failure

Structural Patterns and Insights

Several patterns emerge from 25 years of economic data:

Export-Led vs. Domestic Consumption Models

The most successful developing economies pursued export-oriented growth. China, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Poland integrated into global supply chains, using external demand to drive industrialization and employment. Export manufacturing provided hard currency, technology transfer, and productivity improvements.

In contrast, economies relying primarily on domestic consumption or commodity exports faced greater volatility. Brazil, Russia, and Saudi Arabia experienced boom-bust cycles tied to resource prices, while protected domestic markets in Argentina and Venezuela bred inefficiency without external competitive pressure.

Resource Curse and Blessing

Natural resource wealth produced divergent outcomes based on institutional quality. Norway, Australia, and Canada translated resource abundance into broad prosperity through strong governance, transparent management, and economic diversification. Russia, Venezuela, and Nigeria experienced corruption, dutch disease, and volatility, demonstrating that institutions matter more than endowments.

The resource curse isn’t inevitable but requires deliberate policy to avoid. Sovereign wealth funds, transparent revenue management, and investment in education and infrastructure distinguished successful resource exporters.

Technology Adoption and Productivity

Economies that invested heavily in education, R&D, and digital infrastructure achieved sustained productivity gains. South Korea’s transformation from middle-income to advanced economy status reflected R&D spending exceeding 4% of GDP and technical education emphasis. Estonia’s digital transformation and Finland’s recovery from Nokia’s collapse demonstrated how human capital investment enables adaptation.

Countries that underinvested in education and allowed technological gaps to widen faced stagnation. Italy’s productivity growth essentially flatlined, while Greece’s education system failed to match labor market needs.

Demographics and Growth

Population structure powerfully influenced growth trajectories. India, Indonesia, and Philippines benefited from working-age population expansion, while Japan, Germany, and Italy struggled with aging and shrinking workforces. China’s demographic dividend is now reversing, with working-age population declining and dependency ratios rising.

The demographic transition from high birth rates and young populations through working-age expansion to aging and decline follows predictable patterns. Successful economies maximized growth during demographic dividend periods while building institutions and capital for aging. Japan’s challenges forewarn China’s future.

Institutional Quality Impact

Perhaps most fundamentally, institutional quality—rule of law, property rights protection, corruption control, regulatory quality—distinguished successful from failed development. Poland’s EU membership forced institutional reforms that unleashed growth. Argentina’s institutional dysfunction perpetuated crisis despite resource wealth and human capital.

Research from institutions like the World Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators consistently shows institutional quality correlating with growth, investment, and development outcomes. While causality is complex, the pattern holds across regions and time periods.

The 2000-2025 Economic Narrative: Crisis and Transformation

The 25-year period wasn’t smooth expansion but rather featured multiple shocks that reshaped economies:

Dot-Com Bust (2000-2002): Technology stock collapse triggered recession in advanced economies but barely affected most developing countries, illustrating financial integration levels.

China’s WTO Accession (2001): Perhaps the single most consequential economic event, integrating 1.3 billion people into global trading system and triggering manufacturing shifts worldwide.

Commodity Supercycle (2003-2008): Chinese demand drove unprecedented increases in oil, metals, and agricultural prices, enriching resource exporters and catalyzing infrastructure investment.

Global Financial Crisis (2008-2009): The worst economic crisis since the Great Depression exposed financial system vulnerabilities, triggered sovereign debt concerns, and prompted massive monetary stimulus. Advanced economies bore the brunt while emerging markets recovered faster.

Eurozone Crisis (2010-2012): Sovereign debt problems in Greece, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, and Italy threatened monetary union’s survival. ECB intervention and fiscal austerity created divergent outcomes across member states.

Emerging Market Slowdown (2013-2015): Chinese growth deceleration, commodity price collapses, and Fed tightening expectations triggered outflows and currency crises in vulnerable economies.

U.S.-China Trade Tensions (2018-2019): Tariff escalation, technology restrictions, and supply chain concerns marked shift from cooperation to strategic competition, with effects rippling through integrated global economy.

COVID-19 Economic Shock (2020-2021): Pandemic lockdowns triggered sharpest global contraction since World War II, followed by rapid recovery driven by unprecedented fiscal and monetary stimulus. Supply chain disruptions and inflation accelerated.

Post-Pandemic Inflation Surge (2022-2025): Stimulus-fueled demand colliding with supply constraints produced highest inflation in four decades. Central bank tightening raised recession risks while reshaping investment patterns toward domestic production and resilience over efficiency.

Each crisis tested economic models and policy frameworks. Countries with fiscal space, flexible institutions, and diversified economies generally recovered faster than those with rigidities, debt burdens, and concentrated exposures.

Future Implications: The Economic Landscape Through 2050

Several trends will likely shape the next quarter-century:

Demographic Dividend Shifts: India, Indonesia, Philippines, and African economies enter prime demographic periods while China, Europe, and eventually East Asia age rapidly. Working-age population shifts will drive growth location.

Technology Revolution Impact: Artificial intelligence, automation, and digital platforms will reshape productivity and employment. Countries that invest in digital infrastructure and technical education will capture disproportionate gains.

Climate Transition Economics: Decarbonization will require trillions in investment, creating winners in renewable energy and losers in fossil fuels. Early movers in clean technology may capture first-mover advantages while climate-vulnerable economies face adaptation costs.

Deglobalization vs. Regionalization: U.S.-China decoupling and supply chain reshoring may fragment the global economy, but regional integration (Africa Continental Free Trade Area, RCEP in Asia) could create new growth poles. Mexico and Southeast Asia may benefit from nearshoring trends.

BRICS+ Expansion: Efforts to create alternatives to dollar-dominated financial system and Western-led institutions reflect multipolar ambitions. Success remains uncertain but reflects broader power shifts.

Debt Sustainability Challenges: Many economies carry high debt burdens accumulated through crisis responses. Rising interest rates test sustainability, particularly for developing countries facing hard currency obligations.

Inequality and Social Stability: Within-country inequality grew alongside between-country convergence. Political polarization and social unrest may constrain growth-friendly policies, while automation and AI could accelerate labor market disruption.

Projections suggest China may reach or exceed U.S. GDP in nominal terms by 2035-2040, though per capita income will lag for decades. India will likely become the world’s third-largest economy before 2030. Indonesia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Philippines could all rank among the world’s 20 largest economies by mid-century.

However, these projections assume continuity in policies and institutions. As the past 25 years demonstrated, shocks, crises, and policy choices produce unexpected outcomes. Argentina’s decline from the world’s tenth-largest economy in 1900 to barely top-30 today warns against determinism.

Conclusion: The New Multipolar Economic Order

The 25-year period from 2000 to 2025 witnessed the most dramatic reshuffling of economic power in modern history. China’s rise, India’s emergence, and developing Asia’s transformation challenged Western economic dominance that characterized the post-World War II era.

Yet nuance matters more than headlines. The United States maintained absolute leadership while adapting to relative decline. Europe weathered existential crises to preserve integration. Japan’s stagnation coexisted with high living standards. Commodity exporters experienced booms and busts reflecting both resource wealth and institutional quality.

For investors, the patterns suggest several implications: Demographic dividends drive long-run growth. Export competitiveness, particularly in manufactured goods, proves more durable than commodity dependence. Institutional quality matters more than initial conditions. Crisis resilience requires fiscal space and flexible institutions.

For policymakers, the lessons emphasize: Trade integration, properly managed, accelerates development. Education and R&D investment compound over decades. Financial stability and prudent debt management prevent crisis vulnerabilities. Demographic transitions require foresight and adaptation.

The next 25 years will differ from the last. China’s demographic cliff, climate imperatives, technological disruption, and geopolitical fragmentation create new challenges. But fundamental principles endure: Investment in human capital, institutional quality, openness to trade and ideas, and sound macroeconomic management distinguish successful from failed development.

The global economic hierarchy that seemed immutable in 2000 proved anything but. The hierarchy emerging today will likewise transform by 2050. Understanding which forces drive change—and which countries position themselves to capitalize—remains the central challenge for anyone seeking to navigate the 21st century’s economic landscape.

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Data Note: This analysis relies on data available as of January 2026, drawing primarily from IMF World Economic Outlook Database (October 2024), World Bank World Development Indicators, and OECD statistics. GDP figures for 2025 represent estimates subject to revision. Exchange rate fluctuations significantly impact nominal rankings. Readers should consult original sources for the most current

While 123 million people were forcibly displaced in 2024—the highest number on record—global cooperation metrics held remarkably steady. This paradox lies at the heart of the World Economic Forum’s Global Cooperation Barometer 2026, a comprehensive analysis that challenges our assumptions about international collaboration in an age of rising tensions.

The third edition of this landmark report, developed in partnership with McKinsey & Company, reveals a nuanced truth: global cooperation isn’t collapsing—it’s transforming. Traditional multilateral frameworks may be straining under geopolitical pressures, but smaller, more agile coalitions are emerging to fill critical gaps in trade, technology transfer, climate action, and even security.

This evolution represents what UN Secretary-General António Guterres calls “hard-headed pragmatism”—the recognition that cooperation makes sense when it delivers tangible mutual benefits, even in a fragmented world.

What is the Global Cooperation Barometer 2026?

The Global Cooperation Barometer is an annual assessment by the World Economic Forum and McKinsey & Company that measures international collaboration across five key areas: trade and capital, innovation and technology, climate and natural capital, health and wellness, and peace and security. Using 41 metrics indexed to 2020, the 2026 edition finds overall cooperation held steady despite geopolitical tensions, but its composition shifted dramatically—from large multilateral frameworks toward smaller, flexible coalitions based on aligned interests and pragmatic problem-solving.

After analyzing 41 distinct metrics across five essential pillars—trade and capital, innovation and technology, climate and natural capital, health and wellness, and peace and security—the report’s central finding is clear: cooperation is adapting to new realities rather than disappearing entirely.

The Surprising Resilience of Global Cooperation

The 2026 Global Cooperation Barometer tracks international collaboration from 2012 through 2024, with all data indexed to 2020 as a baseline. This methodology, endorsed by OECD economists, allows researchers to isolate trends that emerged before the COVID-19 pandemic and those accelerated by it.

The topline finding? Overall cooperation levels in 2024 remained virtually unchanged from 2023, despite an environment characterized by:

• Escalating trade barriers and protectionist policies
• Multiple active military conflicts across three continents
• Heightened mistrust between major economic powers
• Record levels of forced displacement
• Increasing restrictions on technology transfers

According to Børge Brende, President and CEO of the World Economic Forum, “The paradox is that, at a time of such rapid change, developing new and innovative approaches to cooperation requires refocusing on some of the basics—notably, doubling down on dialogue.”

Understanding the Methodology

The barometer’s rigor lies in its comprehensive approach. Each of the five pillars comprises two indices:

1. Action Index: Measures concrete cooperative behaviors (trade flows, knowledge exchange, financial transfers)
2. Outcome Index: Tracks results of cooperation (life expectancy, emissions levels, conflict casualties)

Data is normalized to account for economic growth and population changes, ensuring that trendlines reflect genuine cooperation shifts rather than simple expansion. For example, trade metrics are measured as a percentage of global GDP, while migration data is normalized to global population levels.

This methodology, reviewed by International Monetary Fund economists, provides an apples-to-apples comparison across vastly different domains—from pharmaceutical R&D cooperation to peacekeeping deployments.

The Composition Shift That Matters

While aggregate cooperation held steady, the composition of that cooperation shifted dramatically. Metrics tied to global multilateral institutions—those large-scale frameworks involving most of the world’s nations—declined sharply:

• UN Security Council resolutions fell from 50 in 2023 to 46 in 2024
• Multilateral peacekeeping operations dropped by 11% year-over-year
• Official Development Assistance plummeted 10.8% in 2024
• International Health Regulations compliance weakened

Simultaneously, cooperation flourished in areas where flexible, interest-based partnerships could operate:

• Cross-border data flows surged, with international bandwidth now 4x larger than pre-pandemic levels
• Services trade continued its five-year growth trajectory
• Climate finance reached record levels, approaching $1 trillion annually
• Foreign direct investment in strategic sectors (semiconductors, data centers, EV batteries) accelerated

This divergence reveals a fundamental shift: from universal frameworks to tailored coalitions. As McKinsey’s research demonstrates, cooperation increasingly follows geopolitical alignment, with partners choosing collaborators based on shared interests and values rather than institutional membership alone.

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Trade and Capital: Reconfiguration Over Retreat

The trade and capital pillar reveals perhaps the most complex story in the entire report. On the surface, cooperation appears flat—neither advancing nor retreating significantly. But beneath this stability, tectonic plates are shifting.

The Great Trade Rearrangement

According to World Trade Organization data analyzed in the report, global goods trade grew slightly slower than overall GDP in 2024, leading to a marginal decline in trade intensity. More revealing than the volume, however, is the geographic redistribution underway.

McKinsey Global Institute research finds that the average “geopolitical distance” of global goods trade fell by approximately 7% between 2017 and 2024. Countries are trading more with geopolitically aligned partners and less with distant ones—particularly between the United States and China.

The numbers tell a stark story:

• US imports from China fell 20% in the first seven months of 2025 compared to the same period in 2024
• Developing countries’ share of manufacturing exports rose by 5 percentage points in 2024
• China represented over half of this growth, adding $276 billion in exports
• Trade concentration (measured by the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index) declined by about 1%, indicating slight diversification

“We’re witnessing not deglobalization but reglobalization,” explains Dr. Richard Baldwin, Professor of International Economics at the Graduate Institute Geneva. “Trade relationships are being rewired along lines of trust and strategic alignment.”

The Silent Surge in Services and Capital

While goods trade reconfigured, less visible but equally important flows accelerated. Services trade—encompassing IT services, professional services, travel, and digitally delivered offerings—continued climbing throughout 2024.

According to UNCTAD data, services trade growth was driven primarily by:

1. Digitally delivered services: IT consulting, cloud services, software development
2. Business services: R&D, engineering, professional services
3. Travel services: Rebounding from pandemic lows, though not yet at 2019 levels

Foreign direct investment told a similar story. While overall FDI flows remained complex (influenced by “phantom FDI” in tax havens), greenfield investment announcements—representing real productive capacity—surged in future-shaping industries.

FDI Markets data reveals a striking trend: newly announced greenfield projects concentrated heavily in:

• Semiconductors: $89 billion in announced projects globally
• Data centers and AI infrastructure: $370 billion (up from $190 billion in 2024)
• EV battery manufacturing: $67 billion
• Critical minerals processing: $34 billion

These investments flowed predominantly between geopolitically aligned partners. Advanced economies, particularly the United States, attracted the lion’s share, while China’s portion of announced FDI inflows dropped from 9% (2015-19 average) to just 3% (2022-25).

The Multilateral Casualty: Foreign Aid

The sharpest decline in the trade and capital pillar came in Official Development Assistance. According to OECD tracking, ODA fell 10.8% in 2024, with only four donor countries exceeding the UN target of 0.7% of gross national income.

The 2025 outlook appears even bleaker. The OECD projects an additional 9-17% decline in ODA, driven by:

• Reduced humanitarian aid budgets
• Decreased refugee spending in donor countries
• Lower aid to Ukraine as military assistance shifts
• Domestic political pressures in major donor nations

This trend has profound implications for low and middle-income countries that depend on international assistance for health systems, education, and infrastructure development.

New Coalition Models Emerge

Despite these challenges, innovative cooperation frameworks are sprouting. The Future of Investment and Trade (FIT) Partnership, launched in September 2025, brings together 14 economies—including Singapore, New Zealand, Switzerland, and the UAE—to pilot practical trade cooperation mechanisms.

According to Brookings Institution analysis, such “minilateral” arrangements offer several advantages over traditional multilateral treaties:

• Speed: Smaller groups reach consensus faster
• Flexibility: Tailored agreements address specific needs
• Resilience: Less vulnerable to any single member’s withdrawal
• Pragmatism: Focus on mutual gains rather than universal principles

Other examples include the EU-Mercosur trade agreement (after a decade of negotiations), the ASEAN Digital Economy Framework Agreement, and bilateral critical minerals deals between the US and allies like Australia and Canada.

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Innovation and Technology: The AI Race Drives Selective Cooperation

The innovation and technology pillar registered a 3% year-over-year increase—one of the strongest performances across all five domains. Yet this growth masks growing tensions over technology transfer, particularly in areas deemed strategically sensitive.

The Data Flow Explosion

International bandwidth capacity quadrupled between 2019 and 2024, according to International Telecommunication Union statistics. Cross-border data flows—measured as a percentage of total internet traffic—continued their upward trajectory, fueled by:

• Cloud computing adoption accelerating globally
• Remote work normalizing post-pandemic
• Streaming services expanding internationally
• AI model training requiring distributed datasets

Cisco’s annual internet report projects that global IP traffic will reach 4.8 zettabytes per year by 2027, with a growing share crossing international borders.

This digital connectivity enabled a corresponding rise in IT services trade. Software development, cloud services, and AI consultation increasingly operate as global markets, with talent and expertise flowing across borders despite physical restrictions.

The Strategic Technology Paradox

Even as general technology cooperation flourished, restrictions tightened on specific advanced technologies. The United States expanded export controls on:

• Advanced semiconductors and chipmaking equipment
• AI training systems above certain computational thresholds
• Quantum computing components
• Certain biotechnology applications

According to McKinsey research on export controls, these restrictions primarily target China but ripple across global supply chains, affecting companies and research institutions worldwide.

The paradox? Cooperation in cutting-edge technologies continues—but increasingly within aligned blocs. Examples include:

US-Aligned Technology Partnerships:

• US-India Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET)
• US-EU Trade and Technology Council advancing AI safety standards
• US-Japan semiconductor research collaboration
• US-UAE framework on advanced technology cooperation

China-Led Technology Initiatives:

• 5G infrastructure partnerships across Southeast Asia and Africa
• AI research centers in Gulf states
• Data center investments in emerging markets
• Technology transfer agreements with Belt and Road countries

Foreign Affairs magazine describes this as “technological bifurcation”—not complete decoupling, but the emergence of parallel ecosystems with limited interconnection.

The Student Visa Squeeze

One concerning trend threatens long-term technology cooperation: declining international student mobility. After reaching record highs in 2024 (up 8% from 2023), international student flows appear to be contracting in 2025.

Data from major destination countries shows:

• United States: F-1 and M-1 student visas down 11% in Q1 2025
• United Kingdom: Student visa grants fell 2% year-over-year
• Australia: International student approvals dropped 64% (driven by new policy restrictions)
• Canada: Study permits declined amid new caps on international students

According to the Institute of International Education, this reversal could have long-term consequences for innovation. Historically, international students have contributed disproportionately to research breakthroughs, entrepreneurship, and cross-border knowledge networks.

Dr. Mary Sue Coleman, President of the Association of American Universities, warns: “When we restrict the flow of talent, we don’t just hurt international students—we diminish our own innovative capacity.”

The Productivity Question

Despite increases in most innovation metrics, one crucial outcome measure remained stubbornly flat: total factor productivity growth. The Conference Board’s data shows global productivity growth has stagnated for over a decade, raising questions about whether current cooperation patterns effectively translate into tangible economic benefits.

However, McKinsey Global Institute research suggests this may change. Generative AI could increase global productivity growth by 0.1 to 0.6 percentage points annually through 2040, but only if cooperation enables:

• Cross-border data access for model training
• International talent mobility for AI development
• Shared safety standards and governance frameworks
• Collaborative research on frontier applications

The question isn’t whether technology cooperation will matter—it’s whether current cooperation patterns will be sufficient to realize these gains.

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Climate and Natural Capital: Deployment Rises, Outcomes Lag

The climate and natural capital pillar demonstrates both the promise and limitations of current cooperation patterns. Investment and deployment reached record levels, yet environmental outcomes continue deteriorating.

The Clean Energy Deployment Surge

Solar and wind capacity additions doubled between 2022 and 2024—from 300 to 600 gigawatts—according to the International Renewable Energy Agency. In the first half of 2025 alone, installations were 60% higher than the same period in 2024.

Remarkably, in the last 18 months, the world installed more solar capacity than in the previous three years combined.

International Energy Agency analysis attributes this acceleration to:

1. Dramatic cost reductions: Solar module prices fell 90% over the past decade
2. Global supply chains: Chinese manufacturing scale drove affordability
3. Policy alignment: Domestic energy security goals converged with climate objectives
4. Climate finance flows: Both public and private investment reached near $1 trillion annually

China accounted for two-thirds of solar, wind, and electric vehicle additions, but developing economies showed strong momentum. India became the world’s second-largest solar installer, while Brazil accelerated wind and solar deployment significantly.

The Natural Capital Challenge

While energy transition metrics improved, natural capital indicators stagnated or worsened:

• Marine protected areas: Growth stalled during 2023-24
• Terrestrial protected areas: Expansion slowed after steady progress
• Ocean Health Index: Continued gradual decline
• Biodiversity loss: Accelerated despite international commitments

The UN’s High Seas Treaty, reaching the required 60 ratifications in late 2025, offers hope. Entering force in January 2026, it creates the first legally binding framework for protecting two-thirds of the ocean beyond national jurisdiction.

Yet implementation remains uncertain, and the treaty faces the same multilateral pressures affecting other global agreements.

The Emissions Reality Check

Despite record clean energy deployment, global greenhouse gas emissions continued rising in 2024. Global Carbon Project data shows fossil fuel emissions reached approximately 37.8 billion tonnes of CO2 in 2024, up from 37.3 billion tonnes in 2023.

According to McKinsey Global Institute research, the energy transition is progressing at roughly half the speed needed to meet Paris Agreement goals of limiting warming to 1.5°C.

There is one encouraging trend: emissions intensity (emissions per unit of GDP) continues declining, demonstrating that economic growth can occur alongside emissions management—even if absolute reductions remain elusive.

Regional Climate Coalitions Take the Lead

As comprehensive global agreements prove challenging, regional cooperation is filling gaps:

European Union Initiatives:

• The Clean Industrial Deal (February 2025) aims to make decarbonization a competitive advantage
• The Net-Zero Industry Act accelerates manufacturing of clean technologies in Europe
• The Critical Raw Materials Act secures strategic inputs for the energy transition
• The EU-Central Asia Hydrogen Partnership (September 2025) creates new clean energy corridors

ASEAN Cooperation:

• The LTMS-PIP (Laos-Thailand-Malaysia-Singapore Power Integration Project) enables cross-border clean power trading
• Progress toward an integrated ASEAN Power Grid enhances energy security while enabling renewable deployment
• The ASEAN Community Vision 2025 and Master Plan on ASEAN Connectivity both reached target dates with mixed implementation

COP30 Outcomes: The UN climate conference in Brazil produced several commitments:

• Tripling of adaptation finance by 2035
• Launch of the Tropical Forests Forever Facility to boost investment in protected areas
• New mechanisms for loss and damage funding

Climate Policy Initiative analysis notes that while these commitments are significant, the critical challenge remains implementation—translating pledges into deployed capital and measurable emissions reductions.

The Just Energy Transition Shortfall

One area of cooperation that significantly underperformed expectations: the Just Energy Transition Partnerships (JETPs). These international financing mechanisms aim to assist emerging economies in transitioning to low-emission energy systems.

Despite commitments totaling $50 billion, only $7 billion had been delivered by June 2025—a 86% shortfall. According to World Resources Institute analysis, delays stemmed from:

• Bureaucratic complexity in mobilizing multilateral funds
• Competing domestic priorities among donor nations
• Difficulty coordinating between multiple financial institutions
• Recipients’ concerns about sovereignty and conditionality

This underperformance illustrates a broader challenge: while climate cooperation shows resilience in some areas (financing, trade, technology deployment), translating commitments into action remains difficult in the current geopolitical environment.

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Health and Wellness: Resilient Outcomes, Eroding Support

The health and wellness pillar presents perhaps the most deceptive picture in the entire barometer. Overall cooperation appears stable—but this masks a dangerous erosion of the foundational support systems that enable positive health outcomes.

The Outcome Resilience

All major health outcome metrics improved in 2024, according to the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation:

• Life expectancy continued its post-pandemic recovery
• Child mortality (under-five) declined further
• Maternal mortality decreased in most regions
• Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) improved globally

These improvements reflect long-term developmental trends, post-pandemic normalization, and the cumulative effect of previous investments in global health systems.

However, health experts warn these improvements may prove temporary if current trends in health cooperation continue.

The Development Assistance Crisis

Development Assistance for Health fell 6% to $50 billion in 2024—continuing a three-year downward trend. IHME projections suggest an additional $11 billion decline in 2025, largely due to expected cuts from US funding agencies (approximately $9 billion).

Major donor reductions include:

• United States: PEPFAR (President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief) facing budget pressures; USAID tightening cost-sharing requirements
• United Kingdom: Continued retrenchment in global health spending amid domestic fiscal pressures
• Germany: ODA cuts affecting health assistance

According to World Health Organization officials, this creates a dangerous dynamic: bilateral health assistance increasingly focuses on direct service delivery (medicines, diagnostics, frontline care) while reducing support for health system infrastructure, training, and governance.

Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, WHO Director-General, describes this as “robbing Peter to pay Paul—we’re treating today’s patients while dismantling the systems needed to care for tomorrow’s.”

The Multilateral-Bilateral Shift

A significant trend emerged in 2024: funding through multilateral channels (WHO, Global Fund, multilateral development banks) fell by approximately 20%, while bilateral country-to-country funding declined only 3%.

This shift toward bilateral assistance has several implications:

Potential Benefits:

• More direct accountability between donor and recipient
• Faster deployment to specific needs
• Reduced bureaucratic overhead
• Clearer metrics for impact assessment

Significant Risks:

• System-level costs (training, governance, infrastructure) go unfunded
• Recipients face increased burden on domestic budgets
• Coordination between different bilateral programs weakens
• Political considerations may override health priorities
• Smaller countries with less strategic importance receive less support

Pandemic Preparedness in Limbo

The WHO Pandemic Agreement, adopted in May 2025 after three years of challenging negotiations, represents both an achievement and a disappointment in health cooperation.

On one hand, the agreement marks the first binding global framework for pandemic response, addressing lessons from COVID-19 around:

• Equitable access to vaccines and therapeutics
• Information sharing during outbreaks
• Research collaboration and pathogen surveillance
• Capacity building in low-resource settings

On the other hand, the United States—the world’s largest economy and historically the leading contributor to global health—did not participate in the agreement. This absence raises questions about the framework’s practical effectiveness.

Dr. Jennifer Nuzzo, Director of the Pandemic Center at Brown University School of Public Health, notes: “Treaties create obligations on paper, but pandemic preparedness requires sustained investment, trust, and coordination—all of which are in short supply in the current environment.”

Regional Health Cooperation Gains Ground

As global multilateral frameworks face pressure, regional cooperation showed promising developments:

Africa:

• The African Medicines Agency held its second session in Kigali (June 2025), advancing pharmaceutical regulatory harmonization
• The Accra Compact aligned African governments on health sovereignty priorities
• South Africa’s Aspen Pharmacare expanded COVID-19 vaccine manufacturing for the continent

Caribbean:

• The Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States scaled a model to reduce insulin prices region-wide
• Negotiations advanced on a Caribbean pharmaceutical procurement alliance

Latin America:

• Brazil’s Butantan Institute partnered with other regional manufacturers on vaccine development
• The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) strengthened regional disease surveillance

The Lancet, in a November 2025 editorial, described these developments as “pragmatic regionalism”—a recognition that health security increasingly depends on strong regional capacity rather than solely on global institutions.

The Healthspan-Lifespan Gap

One troubling trend that demands attention: while life expectancy continues rising, “health-adjusted life expectancy” (years lived in good health) lags behind. According to research published in JAMA Network Open, this means people are living more years with illness and disability.

This “healthspan-lifespan gap” varies significantly by geography and socioeconomic status, but it’s widening in most regions—suggesting that current health cooperation patterns, while extending life, may be less effective at ensuring those additional years are healthy and productive.

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Peace and Security: The Pillar Under Greatest Strain

No pillar declined as sharply as peace and security. Every single metric tracked in this domain fell below pre-pandemic levels, reflecting an intensification of conflict and a weakening of multilateral conflict resolution mechanisms.

The Conflict Surge

The number of active conflicts increased in 2024, according to Uppsala Conflict Data Program. Major conflicts include:

• The ongoing Russia-Ukraine war (continuing into its third year)
• Israel-Hamas conflict in Gaza (beginning October 2023)
• Israel-Hezbollah hostilities (escalating in 2024)
• Civil war in Sudan (displacing 11.5 million people)
• Civil war in Myanmar (intensifying since 2021 coup)
• Intensified fighting in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

Battle-related deaths remained near 2023 levels, with the Russia-Ukraine conflict accounting for over 40% of total fatalities.

The Displacement Crisis

Forcibly displaced people reached a record 123 million globally by the end of 2024, according to UNHCR. This represents an increase from 117 million in 2023 and 108 million in 2022.

The Sudan conflict alone displaced approximately 11.5 million people—the largest single-year displacement since Syria’s civil war peaked in 2013-2015.

Refugee flows strained hosting countries, particularly:

• Turkey (hosting 3.6 million Syrian refugees plus new arrivals)
• Pakistan (hosting Afghan refugees amid economic crisis)
• Uganda (hosting over 1.5 million refugees from multiple neighboring conflicts)
• Poland and other Eastern European nations (supporting Ukrainian refugees)

According to Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, the costs of supporting displaced populations fall disproportionately on middle-income countries neighboring conflict zones—countries that often lack the resources for adequate support.

Multilateral Mechanisms Under Pressure

The decline in multilateral peace and security cooperation manifested in several metrics:

UN Security Council:

• Resolutions decreased from 50 (2023) to 46 (2024)
• Vetoes by permanent members blocked action on several major conflicts
• The ratio of resolutions to active conflicts declined significantly
• Until November 2025, no new peacekeeping operation had been mandated since 2014

Peacekeeping Operations:

• The ratio of multilateral peacekeeping operations to conflicts fell by approximately 11% year-over-year
• Personnel deployed to multilateral peace operations declined by more than 40% between 2015 and 2024
• Budget constraints disrupted operations, with the approved UN peacekeeping budget falling from $9.7 billion (2014) to $4.7 billion (2025)

Stockholm International Peace Research Institute attributes these declines to:

• Geopolitical tensions among major powers limiting consensus
• Donor fatigue and budget pressures in contributing countries
• Questions about peacekeeping effectiveness in complex civil wars
• Host country sovereignty concerns limiting mandate flexibility

The Cyber and Grey-Zone Threat

Beyond traditional kinetic conflict, 2024 saw intensification of cyberattacks and “grey-zone” activities—actions that fall below the threshold of open warfare but still inflict significant damage.

Verizon’s 2025 Data Breach Investigations Report documents surging cyber incidents across Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. High-profile attacks in 2024-25 included:

• Tata Motors’ Jaguar Land Rover halted production due to cyberattack (September 2025)
• Marks & Spencer faced up to £300 million losses from cyber breach (May 2025)
• Multiple critical infrastructure attacks across Europe

Physical infrastructure also came under attack through grey-zone operations:

• Sabotage of gas pipelines in Europe
• Damage to undersea internet cables in the Red Sea and West Africa (three major multi-cable outages)
• GPS jamming affecting civilian aviation
• Disinformation campaigns targeting elections in multiple democracies

Center for Strategic and International Studies analysis suggests these grey-zone activities are becoming the preferred tool for state and non-state actors seeking to achieve strategic objectives while avoiding direct military confrontation.

The Defense Spending Response

Countries responded to deteriorating security with increased defense budgets:

NATO:

• All 32 member states met the 2% of GDP defense spending target in 2025 (compared to fewer than 20 in 2024)
• The alliance raised its spending target to 5% of GDP for 2035 at The Hague Summit (June 2025)

Asia-Pacific:

• China continued double-digit defense budget increases
• Japan increased defense spending significantly, moving toward the 2% NATO target
• India expanded military modernization programs
• Australia boosted defense spending in response to regional tensions

European Union:

• The European Defence Agency reported increased spending across member states
• New EU defense industrial strategy launched to build autonomous capabilities

According to International Institute for Strategic Studies, global military expenditure reached approximately $2.4 trillion in 2024, representing roughly 2.2% of global GDP—the highest level since the early post-Cold War period.

Regional Peacekeeping Fills the Gap

Despite the decline in UN-led multilateral operations, regional bodies stepped up:

African Union:

• Led security transition in Somalia (ATMIS – African Union Transition Mission in Somalia)
• Deployed forces to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo
• Supported peacekeeping efforts in South Sudan

ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States):

• Maintained presence in several West African nations
• Coordinated responses to coups and instability in the Sahel

Arab League and GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council):

• Mediation efforts in Yemen
• Coordination on security challenges in the Red Sea corridor

United States Institute of Peace research suggests regional organizations often have advantages in peacekeeping:

• Better understanding of local contexts and dynamics
• Greater perceived legitimacy among parties to conflicts
• Ability to act when great power politics block global action
• More flexible mandates and lighter bureaucracy

However, these operations also face significant challenges, including limited resources, potential conflicts of interest among regional powers, and questions about impartiality.

Emerging Bright Spots in Conflict Resolution

Despite the overall decline, some successful examples of cooperation emerged in 2024-25:

Türkiye’s Mediation:

• The Ankara Declaration (February 2025) led to de-escalation of tensions between Ethiopia and Somalia
• Turkish diplomacy facilitated technical talks and confidence-building measures

Armenia-Azerbaijan Progress:

• The two nations agreed on the text of a peace treaty with EU and US facilitation
• Steps taken to keep third-country forces off borders reduced immediate escalation risks

Israel-Hamas Ceasefire:

• After 15 months of conflict, Qatar and Egypt mediated a ceasefire agreement in January 2025
• While fragile, the agreement created space for humanitarian access and reconstruction discussions

These examples underscore a theme throughout the barometer: while large-scale multilateral frameworks struggle, tailored diplomatic efforts by committed mediators can still yield results.

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The Rise of Minilateralism: From Global to Agile

The single most important trend across all five pillars is the shift from universal, rules-based multilateralism toward smaller, flexible, interest-based coalitions.

Defining the New Cooperation Landscape

Multilateralism traditionally involved:

• Near-universal membership (180+ countries)
• Comprehensive frameworks (covering many issues)
• Consensus-based decision-making
• Institutional permanence (UN, WTO, WHO, etc.)
• Rules-based order with dispute resolution mechanisms

Minilateralism (sometimes called “plurilateralism”) instead features:

• Small groups of like-minded countries (3-20 members)
• Focused agendas (addressing specific challenges)
• Streamlined decision-making (easier consensus)
• Purpose-built arrangements (dissolving when objectives met)
• Pragmatic cooperation based on mutual interests

According to Council on Foreign Relations analysis, minilateralism offers several advantages in the current environment:

1. Speed: Smaller groups negotiate and implement faster
2. Flexibility: Tailored solutions address specific needs without compromising for universal buy-in
3. Resilience: Less vulnerable to any single member’s withdrawal or obstruction
4. Effectiveness: Clear objectives and accountable membership improve outcomes
5. Complementarity: Can coexist with and supplement multilateral frameworks

Examples Across the Five Pillars

Trade and Capital:

• Future of Investment and Trade (FIT) Partnership (14 economies)
• EU-Mercosur trade agreement (after decade of negotiations)
• ASEAN Digital Economy Framework Agreement
• US-Australia-Japan-India Quad economic cooperation
• Bilateral critical minerals partnerships (US-Australia, US-Canada, US-Japan)

Innovation and Technology:

• US-India Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology
• US-EU Trade and Technology Council
• US-Japan semiconductor research collaboration
• US-UAE advanced technology cooperation framework
• Various AI safety research partnerships

Climate and Natural Capital:

• EU Clean Industrial Deal and regional decarbonization efforts
• LTMS-PIP Southeast Asian power grid integration
• EU-Central Asia Hydrogen Partnership
• Just Energy Transition Partnerships (despite underperformance, represent minilateral model)

Health and Wellness:

• African Medicines Agency regional pharmaceutical cooperation
• OECS insulin procurement collaboration (Caribbean)
• Accra Compact on African health sovereignty
• Various regional vaccine manufacturing partnerships

Peace and Security:

• African Union-led peacekeeping missions
• ECOWAS regional security coordination
• Türkiye-mediated bilateral negotiations (Ethiopia-Somalia, others)
• Quad security dialogue (US-Japan-Australia-India)

The Geopolitical Clustering Dynamic

McKinsey Global Institute research identifies a clear pattern: cooperation increasingly occurs within geopolitical blocs defined by shared values, security concerns, and economic interests.

Three broad clusters are emerging:

Western-Aligned Bloc:

• North America, Europe, developed Asia-Pacific (Japan, South Korea, Australia)
• Characterized by: democratic governance, market economies, security alliances (NATO, bilateral treaties)
• Deepening integration in technology, defense, critical supply chains

China-Aligned Bloc:

• China, Russia, some Central Asian nations, selective African and Latin American partnerships
• Characterized by: state-directed economics,alternative governance models, Belt and Road participation
• Growing integration in infrastructure, commodities, some technologies

Non-Aligned/Swing States:

• India, Brazil, Indonesia, Turkey, Gulf states, much of Africa and Latin America
• Characterized by: strategic autonomy, economic pragmatism, multiple partnerships
• Maintain relationships across blocs, optimize for national interests

Critically, these clusters are not rigid or exclusive. Many countries maintain relationships across boundaries, and cooperation patterns vary by issue area. India, for example, partners with the US on technology and security (Quad) while maintaining trade relationships with Russia and China.

The Dialogue Imperative

For this new cooperation landscape to function effectively, dialogue becomes more—not less—important.

As UN Secretary-General António Guterres emphasized in his September 2025 address to the General Assembly: “Taking steps forward to address global priorities can only happen if parties first talk with one another to find commonality.”

Yet dialogue quality has deteriorated. Too often, international engagements feature:

• Positioning statements rather than genuine exchange
• One-way communication designed to hold ground rather than find common ground
• Performative diplomacy focused on domestic audiences
• Tactical maneuvering instead of problem-solving

Effective dialogue in the minilateral era requires:

1. Confidential channels: Away from public pressure and domestic political constraints
2. Specific agendas: Focused on concrete problems with potential solutions
3. Good-faith participation: Genuine willingness to find mutually beneficial outcomes
4. Technical expertise: Subject matter experts alongside diplomats
5. Follow-through mechanisms: Implementation plans with clear accountability

Harvard Negotiation Project research emphasizes that successful minilateral cooperation depends on participants separating people from problems, focusing on interests rather than positions, and generating options for mutual gain before deciding on specific approaches.

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What the Shifting Cooperation Landscape Means for Global Business

The transformation in global cooperation patterns has profound implications for multinational corporations, investors, and business leaders navigating an increasingly complex environment.

The Corporate Sentiment Split

The Global Cooperation Barometer survey of approximately 800 executives across 81 economies revealed a striking divergence in perceptions:

• 40% reported that growing barriers in trade, talent, and capital flows hampered their ability to do business
• 60% said the effects were neutral or not substantially negative

This split suggests that business impacts depend heavily on:

• Industry: Technology and pharmaceuticals face more restrictions than services
• Geography: Companies operating between aligned partners less affected than those spanning geopolitical divides
• Business model: Digital platforms more adaptable than asset-heavy manufacturers
• Strategic positioning: Proactive adaptation mitigates negative effects

According to Harvard Business Review analysis, companies successfully navigating this environment share several characteristics:

1. Geopolitical intelligence capabilities: Dedicated teams tracking regulatory changes, alliance shifts, and emerging restrictions
2. Flexible supply chains: Multiple sourcing options and rapid reconfiguration ability
3. Regional strategies: Tailored approaches for different geopolitical clusters
4. Government relations excellence: Deep understanding of policy priorities and effective engagement
5. Scenario planning: Regular war-gaming of geopolitical shocks and strategic responses

The Opportunity in Reconfiguration

While some business leaders focus on cooperation’s decline, others see opportunity in its transformation. McKinsey research identifies several emerging opportunities:

New Trade Corridors:

• Intra-ASEAN trade growing rapidly as regional integration deepens
• Africa-India trade expanding as both seek diversification
• Middle East-Europe connections strengthening (renewable energy, logistics)
• Latin American regional trade agreements creating larger effective markets

Strategic Industry Positioning:

• Semiconductor manufacturing expanding beyond East Asia (US, Europe, India investments)
• EV battery supply chains developing regional hubs (Europe, North America, Southeast Asia)
• Critical minerals processing diversifying away from China dominance
• Pharmaceutical manufacturing regionalizing for supply security

Services and Digital Growth:

• IT services demand surging as businesses digitize and adopt AI
• Professional services expanding as companies navigate complex regulatory environments
• Digital platforms less constrained by physical trade barriers
• Knowledge-intensive services benefiting from continued (if selective) talent mobility

Climate Transition Opportunities:

• $1 trillion+ annual climate finance creating massive market
• Clean technology manufacturing and deployment accelerating globally
• Energy transition requiring infrastructure investment across developing economies
• Carbon markets and climate services expanding

Building a Geopolitical Nerve Center

McKinsey research on geopolitical risk management recommends companies establish a dedicated “geopolitical nerve center”—a cross-functional team responsible for:

Monitoring and Intelligence:

• Track regulatory changes across jurisdictions
• Monitor geopolitical developments affecting operations
• Assess competitor positioning and strategic moves
• Maintain relationships with policy experts and government officials

Scenario Planning and War-Gaming:

• Develop detailed scenarios for potential geopolitical shocks (new sanctions, conflict escalation, alliance shifts)
• War-game company responses with senior leadership quarterly
• Identify trigger points for pre-authorized decisions
• Maintain updated playbooks for rapid response

Strategic Coordination:

• Align business unit strategies with geopolitical realities
• Coordinate government relations across regions
• Manage trade-offs between efficiency and resilience
• Balance short-term costs of adaptation with long-term risk reduction

Capability Building:

• Develop internal expertise on key geographies and issues
• Build relationships with external experts and advisors
• Train leadership on geopolitical risk assessment
• Foster cultural awareness and sensitivity

Companies that invested in these capabilities earlier are now outperforming. According to Boston Consulting Group analysis, firms in the top quartile of geopolitical preparedness showed 3-5 percentage points higher return on invested capital during 2022-24 compared to bottom-quartile peers.

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Three Strategies for Navigating the New Cooperation Paradigm

As global cooperation evolves, leaders in both public and private sectors must adapt their approaches. Three strategies emerge from the barometer’s findings:

1. Match Cooperation Format to Specific Issues

Not all challenges require universal, multilateral solutions. Leaders should strategically choose cooperation formats based on:

Issue Characteristics:

• Technical problems with clear solutions: Small expert groups (e.g., technology standards)
• Economic opportunities with aligned incentives: Bilateral or regional trade agreements
• Security challenges with geographic concentration: Regional organizations
• Global challenges requiring universal participation: Reformed multilateral institutions (climate, pandemics)

Partner Alignment:

• High alignment: Deep integration possible (single markets, currency unions, defense alliances)
• Moderate alignment: Issue-specific cooperation (trade agreements, technology partnerships)
• Low alignment: Transactional engagement (commodity trade, specific projects)

Time Sensitivity:

• Immediate crises: Ad hoc coalitions of capable and willing actors
• Medium-term challenges: Purpose-built minilateral partnerships
• Long-term systemic issues: Institutional frameworks with staying power

The key is strategic flexibility—maintaining participation in multiple cooperation formats simultaneously, activating different partnerships for different challenges.

2. Strengthen Resilience Through New Organizational Capabilities

Both governments and businesses must build capabilities to thrive in a more fragmented cooperation landscape:

For Governments:

Intelligence and Foresight:

• Establish forward-looking analytical units tracking cooperation trends
• Maintain comprehensive mapping of existing partnerships and potential new ones
• Develop scenario planning for different cooperation futures

Diplomatic Agility:

• Train diplomats in minilateral negotiation techniques
• Empower smaller negotiating teams with flexible mandates
• Build rapid response capacity for emerging cooperation opportunities

Policy Coordination:

• Break down silos between trade, security, climate, and health policy
• Recognize interconnections across cooperation domains
• Develop whole-of-government strategies for key relationships

For Businesses:

Geopolitical Intelligence:

• Build dedicated teams monitoring regulatory and political developments
• Develop early warning systems for cooperation disruptions
• Maintain networks of advisors across key geographies

Operational Flexibility:

• Design supply chains with multiple sourcing options
• Maintain manufacturing and service delivery capacity in multiple regions
• Develop rapid reconfiguration capabilities

Strategic Relationships:

• Cultivate relationships with policymakers in key markets
• Participate actively in industry associations and multi-stakeholder forums
• Build trust through consistent engagement, not just during crises

According to McKinsey & Company research, companies that systematically built these capabilities showed higher revenue growth (2-4 percentage points annually) and lower volatility (15-25% lower earnings variance) compared to peers during 2020-24.

3. Pursue Public-Private and Private-Private Coalitions

Cooperation need not flow only through governmental channels. Innovative partnership models can accelerate progress:

Public-Private Coalitions:

These partnerships leverage complementary strengths:

• Government: Convening power, regulatory authority, patient capital, long-term perspective
• Business: Technical expertise, operational efficiency, innovation capacity, private capital

Successful examples include:

Minerals Security Partnership:

• Governments and leading mining/manufacturing companies
• Objective: Accelerate critical mineral projects
• Approach: Coordinated investment and market-making
• Result: Pipeline of projects moving toward financial close

Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI):

• Governments, foundations, pharmaceutical companies
• Objective: Accelerate vaccine development for emerging threats
• Approach: Coordinated R&D funding and manufacturing capacity
• Result: Rapid COVID-19 vaccine development and future preparedness

Private-Private Coalitions:

When public policy moves slowly, businesses can self-organize:

The Resilience Consortium (World Economic Forum/McKinsey):

• Brings together businesses’ agility, MDBs’ capital mobilization capacity
• Focus on building resilience in critical supply chains
• Enables rapid coordination without waiting for government action

Industry-Specific Standards Bodies:

• Technology companies collaborating on AI safety standards
• Pharmaceutical companies coordinating on pandemic preparedness
• Logistics companies optimizing supply chain resilience

According to World Economic Forum research, effective public-private partnerships share common characteristics:

1. Clear governance: Defined roles, decision-making processes, accountability
2. Aligned incentives: Structure ensuring all parties benefit from success
3. Measurable objectives: Concrete targets and transparent progress tracking
4. Risk sharing: Appropriate distribution of risks and rewards
5. Long-term commitment: Patience through inevitable implementation challenges

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Looking Ahead: Cooperation’s Future in 2026 and Beyond

As we move deeper into 2026, several trends deserve close attention:

Pressure Points to Watch

US Policy Direction:

• Tariff policies and their implementation affecting global trade flows
• Foreign aid levels impacting health and development cooperation
• Technology export controls shaping innovation ecosystems
• Immigration policies affecting talent mobility

China’s Strategic Choices:

• Economic opening or further self-reliance emphasis
• Technology cooperation with developing economies
• Belt and Road Initiative evolution
• Role in multilateral institutions

European Union Cohesion:

• Internal political dynamics affecting unity
• Defense spending and security cooperation expansion
• Industrial policy and subsidy competition
• Enlargement and neighborhood relations

Emerging Economy Agency:

• India’s positioning between major powers
• Gulf states’ technology and economic partnerships
• African regional integration progress
• Latin American trade and political alignments

Multilateral Institution Reform:

• UN Security Council reform discussions
• WTO dispute resolution restoration
• World Bank/IMF governance changes
• WHO funding and authority

Reasons for Measured Optimism

Despite significant challenges, several factors suggest cooperation’s resilience:

Economic Incentives Remain Strong:

• Global supply chains still deliver efficiency gains
• Cross-border investment creates wealth
• International students and workers enhance innovation
• Trade benefits consumers through lower prices and greater choice

Technology Enables New Forms:

• Digital platforms reduce coordination costs
• Data flows enable distributed collaboration
• Remote communication makes distance less relevant
• AI could enhance translation and cross-cultural understanding

Shared Challenges Demand Collective Action:

• Climate change affects all countries
• Pandemics ignore borders
• Cybersecurity threats require coordination
• Economic instability ripples globally

Pragmatic Leaders Understand Value:

• Surveys show majority recognize cooperation benefits
• Business leaders adapt strategies rather than retreat
• Diplomats seek creative solutions within constraints
• Civil society maintains cross-border networks

The Adaptation Imperative

The central message of the Global Cooperation Barometer 2026 is neither pessimistic nor naively optimistic. Instead, it offers a realistic assessment: cooperation is under pressure but adapting.

The question isn’t whether countries and organizations will cooperate—they will, because they must. The question is whether they’ll adapt quickly and effectively enough to address urgent challenges while managing tensions.

As Børge Brende of the World Economic Forum notes: “Cooperative approaches are vital for advancing corporate, national and global interests. The barometer finds that, in the face of strong headwinds, cooperation is still taking place, albeit in different forms than in the past.”

The path forward requires:

• Dialogue: Open, constructive engagement to identify common interests
• Flexibility: Willingness to try new cooperation formats and partnerships
• Pragmatism: Focus on tangible outcomes rather than ideological purity
• Patience: Recognition that building trust and achieving results takes time
• Innovation: Creative approaches to long-standing challenges

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Conclusion: Cooperation Evolving, Not Collapsing

The 2026 Global Cooperation Barometer paints a nuanced picture of international collaboration in an era of geopolitical fragmentation. While traditional multilateral frameworks face unprecedented strain, cooperation persists and evolves through smaller, more flexible coalitions.

Across trade, technology, climate, health, and security—the five pillars of global cooperation—we see common patterns:

• Multilateral mechanisms declining but not disappearing entirely
• Regional and minilateral partnerships filling gaps with agile, interest-based cooperation
• Economic incentives continuing to drive collaboration where mutual benefits are clear
• Outcomes holding steady or improving in some areas, deteriorating in others
• Adaptability emerging as the key to navigating uncertainty

For business leaders, this environment demands new capabilities: geopolitical intelligence, supply chain flexibility, strategic relationship management, and scenario planning. Companies that proactively adapt can find opportunity in reconfiguration rather than merely managing decline.

For government officials and diplomats, success requires matching cooperation formats to specific challenges, building diverse partnership portfolios, and maintaining dialogue even—especially—with those with whom disagreement runs deep.

For all stakeholders, the fundamental truth remains: many of today’s most pressing challenges cannot be solved by any country or organization alone. Climate change, pandemic preparedness, economic prosperity, technological innovation, and peace all require cooperative effort.

The shape of that cooperation may look different from the post-World War II multilateral order. It may be more fragmented, more pragmatic, more selective about participants and more focused on concrete outcomes. But cooperation itself—the human capacity to work together toward shared goals—endures.

As we navigate 2026 and beyond, the barometer’s message is clear: cooperation isn’t dying. It’s evolving. And our collective ability to adapt will determine whether that evolution leads to a more resilient, prosperous, and peaceful world—or to continued fragmentation and missed opportunities.

The choice isn’t between cooperation and isolation. It’s between rigid adherence to fading frameworks and creative adaptation to new realities. The data suggests pragmatic optimism: cooperation is down but not out, strained but not shattered, adapting even as it’s tested.

In this era of transformation, the question each leader must answer is not “should we cooperate?” but “how shall we cooperate most effectively?” The Global Cooperation Barometer 2026 provides essential data for answering that question wisely.

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Methodology Note: This article draws primarily from the World Economic Forum’s Global Cooperation Barometer 2026 Third Edition, produced in partnership with McKinsey & Company. All statistics are sourced from the report’s 41 tracked metrics unless otherwise noted. Additional reporting includes interviews with policy experts, analysis of supplementary data sources, and review of academic literature on international cooperation.